David Makhanlall Return to Main Page
MATX601: Final Paper
December 14, 2006.
|
“History is built around achievement and creation, and nothing was created in the V.S. Naipaul, 1962,
“A part of our cleansing has to take the form of the backward glance, not in a state of complaint or in a state of rancor, but the backward glance as part of the need to understand.” George Lamming, 1968, “For us, my generation of writers—Naipaul, Lamming, Reed, John Hearne—I think that there was and there is still in us, although we are all getting middle-aged, an elation that is in the best sense a child-like elation of having behind you a tradition which you knew, which is the English tradition. And not belonging to it but certainly being much a part of it because of the language and its customs.” Derek Walcott, 1978, “Masquerade was born out of the struggle of marginalized people to shape cultural identity through resistance and liberation, and these ideals have not disappeared; the resistance and vibrancy of the mask-and-dance in general and the communities responsible for making it happen in particular have been its key unifying strengths.” The Street Dance of Masquerade Listen To Masquerade Band - The Tradewinds - 3:10. |
[Note: the items in blue in this paper are multi-media links.
Sourcing information is explained and clarified in endnotes].
Narrative, poem, song and film: fostering dialectical literature, native traditions and cultural consciousness in Caribbean culture in
Definition and Justification: Introduction.
This multi-media document traces the artistic history of the English Speaking Caribbean nationals residing in the Caribbean, and their eventual migration and development in the
Definition and Justification.
The prominent anthropologist Michel-Rolph Trouillot makes mention of the
where boundaries are notoriously fuzzy has long been the open frontier of cultural anthropology: neither center nor periphery, but a sort of no man’s land where pioneers get lost, where some stop overnight on their way to greater opportunities, and where yet others manage to create their own “new” world amidst First-world indifference.[1] (19)
In a sense, there is much truth and validity in the statements as evident by the fact that many aspiring creative artists from the Caribbean have historically turned to
Wendy Griswold’s comments in her article “The Fabrication of Meaning: Literary Interpretations in the
human beings find meaning in cultural works that were created in very different times and places, and an analysis of how and why this happens should recognize that cultural works continue to generate meaning, that they are not just static residues of particular historical experiences. (1078)
With the discovery of the New World in 1492, the Caribbean region has seen a great influx of nations: the colonials from Europe, slaves from Africa and Indentured workers from
However, this assimilation has not been without its problems in the world political arena. In the sphere of changing global economies, together with the challenges faced in detecting and preventing terrorist activities,[10] the two central world powers - The United States and
What is readily apparent is that the Caribbean artist in the
Analysis & Interpretation. Literature: use of dialect in folklore, fiction and poetry.
The home dialect of the English Speaking Caribbean person now residing in
It is now necessary to look at the use of dialectical dialogue in the culture of the
The
Kenneth Ramchand in his book “The West Indian Novel and its Background” [12] points out that
dialect is a natural part of the equipment of the West Indian novelist, used as a means of narration, and for expressing the consciousness of the peasant character in a wide range of situations. It has been suggested that such a subtle and flexible use of dialect on such a large scale in probably unique in literature. (107)
Indeed, the consciousness of the peasant character is captured in the dialect of everyday speech and blends into text, and rightfully holds to the nuances of everyday speech. Important questions to ask are: what is this Caribbean English.[13] Other important issues are about how did this realization of dialogue and dialect come about? How did it get into the craft of West Indian fiction? How did it survive in the language of the everyday West Indian residing in
Emevwo Biakolo is correct to observe that
speech is related to hearing, the auditory faculty most directly connected with time. The objects of sight, smell, taste, and touch can be arrested in time, but human utterances, the object of hearing, vanishes as soon as it comes into being.
The writer then, on some notion of recreating text from his own personal experience (what he has heard and/or read) recreates the narrative by combining the elements of narration (storytelling) with that of dialogue (communication), and this is accomplished in the language of the text he has favored; thus, the text of the narration and dialogue are fused in the same language, with some slight variations in the dialogue itself, and with one important caveat: dialogue should never distract the reader. Western writers, such as Dickens, Twain, Faulkner, and others, often use dialect and peculiarities of speech to characterize a speaker.
However, in the West Indian situation this shift from oral to written has had its complexities. Two methods of discourse were frequent: the dialect of the natives[14] and the Standard English used by the educated and ruling class. The dilemma then: should the narrator write for the natives in the native dialect or in Standard English for the educated class? Then again, to what class does this writer belong? For the native writer (ordinary or extraordinary) in order for him to write in the Standard English he needs to be well-versed (or educated) in the language, and then there is the tendency that the “text” becomes changed because of the education. To get the material out to the public in the early 1950s it must be in the form acceptable to the publishers and subsequently the public at that time, and the method at that time demands Standard English because the reading public at that time is considered to be only the upper class. With no means of communication other than the spoken dialect, the natives exist in and within the framework of the dialect. As Louis James observes the “dialect expresses a way of thinking and feeling” for the natives (18), which to a great extent echoes the ideas of Walter Ong. Emevwo Biakolo aptly observes:
More central to Ong's argument, and correspondingly more contentious, is the claim that since oral cultures have no fixed texts, they organize and transmit knowledge and information in a unique way. Oral thought proceeds, Ong says, “in heavily rhythmic, balanced patterns, in repetitions or antitheses, in alliterations and assonances, in epithetic and other formulary expressions, in standard thematic settings (the assembly, the meal, the duel, the hero's helper,' and so on), in proverbs ... or other mnemonic form” (Orality and Literacy 34).
In other words, at the basis of oral thought and style is memory. As
Spoken language, in the dialect of the West Indian, is an everyday occurrence, punctuated by fire-side tales of the crafted story tellers; it is the language of most of the West Indian writers, and is rhythmic and narrativized. To write a story of a local character, then the writer must, of course, render the dialogue in the native tongue of the character.
Finkelstein and McCleery point out that “the shift from oral to written traditions was often incremental, with individuals versed in the former robustly contesting the validity of the latter” (32). There is some incremental shift in West Indian narrative; earlier works are in standard English, and as writing became more acceptable, West Indian authors began to depict the “thinking and feeling” personality into their characters.
Then, this spoken language, in the dialect, an everyday occurrence, punctuated by fire-side tales of the crafted story tellers, and imaginative discourse, becomes the writing style of the West Indian writer. Laura Tanna points out that
the first extensive collection of Jamaican folklore was conducted by Walter Jekyll and published in 1904 by the Folk-Lore Society [where] he produced a fine collection of narratives, which he preserved in the patois of the day…both the language and music as accurately as possible (22-3).
In some instances folktales, as done in David Makhanlall’s books, are retold[15] in Standard English, without dialectical dialogue, yet these stories retain their original context and meaning. Sir Philip Sherlock[16] did write Anansi folk stories in Standard English for school use, and David Makhanlall’s[17] nine volumes follow in the same tradition.
Sometimes, this goes (or starts in) the other way around; for instance, in earlier works “artificial” dialogue created to mimic everyday dialectical speech is incongruous with reality. Ramchand quotes Willie Sypher’s analysis of a 1942 narrative written as follows “White man tie me mother, and force her and me brother Tankey board ship, and bring them and sell them to me master: me mother take sick and not able to work….” (52). A comparison with V.S. Naipaul’s “The Mystic Masseur” is revealing:
One day he said, “Leela, is high time we realize that we living in a British country and I think we shouldn’t be shame to talk the people language good.”
Leela was squatting in the kitchen chulba, coaxing a fire from dry mango twigs. Her eyes were red and watery from the smoke. “All right, man.”
“We starting now self, girl.”
“As you say, man.”
“Good. Let me see now. Ah, yes, Leela, have you lighted the fire? No, just gimme a chance. Is ‘lighted’ or ‘lit’ girl?”
“Look, eas me up, man. The smoke going in my eyes.”
“You ain’t paying attention girl. You mean the smoke is going in you eye.”
Here the dialogue[18] in the East Indian community in
As quoted by Louis James[19] (19) this rhythmic balance and flow is also evident in the narrative poem “Song of the Banana Man” by Evan Jones.
I leave m’yard early-morning time
And set m’foot to de mountain climb
I ben m’back to de hot-sun soil
Ploughin’ and weedin’, diggin’ an’ plantin’,
Till
Den home again to cool evenin’ time…..
The use of repetition and rhythm is evident in the reading by George Scott[20] of Evan Jones’ poem. The reading of this poem by an ex-native Jamaican, now residing in the
As Louis James observes, and as is apparent in the sections quoted above, dialect “is active: the passive tense is usually avoided, reflecting a concern with the present” (18). In the excerpt from Naipaul the dialogue and text bring alive the personalities of the players; in the Jones’ excerpt the poem is done in the rhythmic monologue flow; then, the rendering of dialogue in its natural state complements and enhances the smooth flow of the narrative and brings the scenes to life. To this end, Wordsworth McAndrew, a folklorist and radio broadcaster from
Paul Soukup points out “Talk changed too, by becoming more literary. Orators could write out speeches to practice them before delivering them.” This dialogue edited to conform to the text is reported speech and not spontaneous dialogue, but the actual writing of the information in dialect fixes it in time. Dialect is locked into its cultural framework, especially when reported as actual dialogue in works of fiction; better yet, when dialogue and text blend to reflect reality only then is there true craftsmanship in narrative. The West Indian novel has come a long way in holding its own as a novel that transcends time and space, but at the same time remain steeped in time and space. Oral tradition and narrative, the retention of dialect, all had a direct bearing on music, calypso and song.
Analysis & Interpretation. Music, calypso and song.
Not unlike narrative, songs first developed in the Caribbean in the oral tradition, starting in
Caribbean songs were first made mention in world literature in 1966 in the Jean Rhys’ novel Wide Sargasso Sea, set in Jamaica, where, as pointed out by Jean D’Costa “Antoinette Cosway Rochester sings ‘Charlie over the water,’ a creole song about a Stuart prince” (p. 669). However, it is Trinidadian author V. S. Naipaul who extensively analyzes the concept and transition of song to Calypso in his first written (but published third) novel Miguel Street[23] (1959). Naipaul integrates the song into his narrative and relates it to the political and economic conditions in the island when foreigners arrived to develop the oil industry. In a sense, the foreigners are seen as a “second coming” of colonials; Naipaul’s fiction analyzes the incident and draws its parallel to colonial exploitation. A section of the novel reads:
Then the war came. Hitler invaded
Lord Invader made a hit with his calypso:
I was living with my decent and contended wife
Until the soldiers came and broke up my life.
For the first time in
Father, mother, and daughter
Working for the Yankee dollar!
Money in the land!
The Yankee dollar, oh! (p. 183).[24]
The song is one composed and recorded by the Trinidadian Calypso singer Lord Invader under the title “Rum and Coca-Cola.” An original recording of the song as “Rum and Coca-Cola”[25] survives today, and its words and melodies bring out the true atmosphere and color of Caribbean life, and were extremely popular in the
while the black calypsonian identifies himself as an honest citizen who defends his nation from foreigners, he identifies the prostitute as collaborating with the Yankee foreigner against the interests of the Trinidadian nation. (p. 123).
Naipaul’s fiction picks up the local atmosphere and with direct assertions bridges the gap of local consciousness with social awareness. His characters’ lives are inter-twined in cultural expressions on two levels: satisfying the need for entertainment and a form of self-identity, which in a sense has reappeared in Caribbean song and music in the
Jorge Duany in “Rethinking the Popular: Recent Essays on Caribbean Music and Identity” asserts that
The study of Caribbean music can no longer be confined to an insular space but must be extended to the disapora communities in the
In the disapora communities of the
Although chutney draws upon traditions (mainly those of wedding celebrations) which came to the Caribbean with the first indentured laborers from
Indeed, most Caribbean night-clubs in
Me come from de country they call
Land of de bauxite, de rice and sugar…
Singing in the
I am coming back man, back to
I am coming back, to
To find me a dulahin for this dulaha.
This song clearly indicates a mixture of East Indian Caribbean dialect with Indian words (Baboo meaning local fellow; dulahin meaning bride; dulaha meaning groom). Here then the singer-composes tries to bridge the cultural gap by returning to his homeland in search of a bride; in a sense symbolic of the earlier situations in which the Caribbean East Indian sought to return to India. “His own evaluation of his chutney style is that he blends Indian songs with influences from soca, reggae and rap” (Ramnarine, 148-49). Terry Gajraj’s Website is impressive in its scope and is typical of many other Caribbean Websites that provide a blend of biographical information and creative elements.
Steel pan[28] is an important part of Caribbean culture which has been extensively introduced not only in the
Analysis & Interpretation: Film.
The Caribbean artists have used the video medium to their full advantage, and numerous websites offer the opportunity for browsers and shoppers to sample brief Caribbean videos. A few artists have made “semi-documentary” movies of
There are few full-length commercial films made in the
However, a few foreign films made in the
When compared to
in many respects, the version of reality portrayed in Indian films is closer to Caribbean life than to anything in India; for the chic world of cabarets and clubs where informally-clad Indian women dance erotically and freely with men has until recently scarcely existed in India, although something quite like it flourishes in the Caribbean, in the form of Chutney dances. (p. 24)
A rendering of this chutney dance as part of a wedding ceremony in the film is true to form and lends color and character to the ceremony. The film is very true to the novel in time, place and culture. Thus, as George Scott holds to the flavor of poem and song, Carl Phillips holds true to dialectical dialogue and local scene where The Mystic Masseur brings this out most beautifully; thus “among scholars and intellectuals, the so-called postcolonial era has produced anything but a farewell to the imperial epoch” (Mitchell 151). Then, films are not only used for entertainment but to create awareness of social conditions. This is made more apparent in a documentary film Life and Debt by Stephanie Black:
This then is a depiction of the harsh realities of post-colonialism. The few Caribbean films produced are, unlike
Self Evaluation.
This study of Caribbean cultural development in the
Therefore, for the Caribbean immigrant residing in the
In
It is true to form then that the
It remains to be seen that, with the vastly changing and evolving media forms, coupled with a troubling political world situation of instability, whether the Caribbean immigrant would be equipped to take on new challenges; then, with the present retention of oral cultural in a metropolis and its incorporation into artistic multi-media items, clearly indicates that the Caribbean national is most definitely up to the challenge.
Appendix A: Audio, Video and Website Links